Common yew (Taxus baccata) is a medium-sized evergreen tree. Every part of this tree is poisonous and consumption can result in death. Common yew is native to Europe, as well as parts of Africa, Iran, and southwest Asia. Historically, wood from this species was used to make English longbows – important weapons in medieval tactical warfare.
I. Appearance and Characteristics
Taxus baccata is a species of evergreen tree in the family Taxaceae, native to Western Europe, Central Europe and Southern Europe, as well as Great Britain and Ireland, Northwest Africa, northern Iran, and Southwest Asia. It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be referred to as the common yew, English yew, or European yew. It is primarily grown as an ornamental.
Most parts of the plant are poisonous, with toxins that can be absorbed through inhalation, ingestion and through the skin; consumption of even a small amount of the foliage can result in death.
Yews are small to medium-sized evergreen trees, growing 10–20 m (35–65 ft) (exceptionally up to 28 m or 92 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) (exceptionally 4 m or 13 ft 1 in) in diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, and comes off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The leaves are flat, dark green, 1–4 centimetres (1⁄2–1+1⁄2 in) long, 2–3 mm (3⁄32–1⁄8 in) broad, and arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows on either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious. The leaves are poisonous.
The seed cones are modified, each cone containing a single seed, which is 4–7 mm (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) long, and partly surrounded by a fleshy scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril. The aril is 8–15 mm (5⁄16–9⁄16 in) long and wide and open at the end. The arils mature 6 to 9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained, are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings. Maturation of the arils is spread over 2 to 3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal.
The seeds themselves are poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species, including hawfinches, greenfinches, and great tits. The aril is not poisonous; it is gelatinous and very sweet tasting. The male cones are globose, 3–6 mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 in) in diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. Yews are mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.
T. baccata prefers steep rocky calcareous slopes. It rarely develops beyond saplings on acid soil when under a forest canopy, but is tolerant of soil pH when planted by humans, such as their traditional placement in churchyards and cemeteries, where some of the largest and oldest trees in northwestern Europe are found.
It grows well in well-drained soils, tolerating nearly any soil type, typically humus and base-rich soils, but also on rendzina and sand soils given adequate moisture. They can survive temporary flooding and moderate droughts. Roots can penetrate extremely compressed soils, such as on rocky terrain and vertical cliff faces.
T. baccata normally appears individually or in small groups within the understory, but also forms stands throughout its range, such as in sheltered calcareous sites. T. baccata is extremely shade-tolerant, with the widest temperature range for photosynthesis among European trees, able to photosynthesize in winter after deciduous trees have shed their leaves. It can grow under partial canopies of beech and other deciduous broad-leafed trees, though it only grows into large trees without such shade.
Longevity
Taxus baccata can reach 400 to 600 years of age. Some specimens live longer but the age of yews is often overestimated. Ten yews in Britain are believed to predate the 10th century. The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often become hollow with age, making ring counts impossible.
Evidence based on growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggests the oldest yews, such as the Fortingall Yew in Perthshire, Scotland, may be in the range of 2,000 years, placing them among the oldest plants in Europe.
One characteristic contributing to yews’ longevity is that, unlike most other trees, they are able to split under the weight of advanced growth without succumbing to disease in the fracture. Another is their ability to give rise to new epicormic and basal shoots from cut surfaces and low on their trunks, even in old age.
Toxicity
The entire yew bush is poisonous, with the exception of the aril (the red flesh of the berry covering the seed). Yews contain numerous toxic compounds, including “at least ten alkaloids, nitriles (cyanogenic glycoside esters), ephedrine”, and their essential oil, but the most important toxins are taxine alkaloids, cardiotoxic chemical compounds which act via calcium and sodium channel antagonism.
If any leaves or seeds of the plant are ingested, urgent medical attention is recommended as well as observation for at least 6 hours after the point of ingestion. The European yew is one of the most toxic species in the genus, along with the Japanese yew, T. cuspidata.
II. How to Grow and Care
Sunlight
The common yew can grow in any environment from full shade to full sun, though it seem to thrive slightly better in partial shade with small amounts of direct sunshine. The younger the common yew, the more it will be negatively affected by harsh sunlight and temperatures. If the common yew grows in full shade without much access to direct sunlight, its growth will be affected. This will cause it to grow even slower than usual, while it will remain generally healthy otherwise.
Temperature
The common yew is a hardy plant and will thrive in temperatures around 20 ℃, as long as it does not become waterlogged. It can withstand temperatures as low as -5 ℃, but if the temperature drops below -25 ℃, the common yew will struggle to survive.
Watering
The common yew is not a demanding plant when it comes to its watering needs. The most important thing to ensure is that your common yew does not become waterlogged. In the first few years after planting, you will need to water a little more regularly – every seven to ten days is a good measure, but this will depend on your climate.
After the first few years, you will still need to water your common yew if you have had a prolonged dry spell or if the soil seems particularly dry. In the summer months, a good tip is to spread a layer of bark mulch on the surface of the soil to prevent the water from evaporating, therefore keeping the soil moist for longer.
Soil
The common yew tolerates most soils and will happily grow in almost any soil that has a pH value between 5.6-8.5. However, it is sensitive to soil compaction, so well-draining soil is vital to keep your tree happy and healthy. The ideal soil for the common yew is slightly loamy with a high percentage of sand or clay granules.
Fertilizing
The common yew does not demand regular fertilizing, and you should not use a fertilizer until at least a year after planting. Fertilizing once a year with a conifer or fir fertilizer is enough, although you can also water your common yew with limy water to encourage your plant to flourish. When fertilizing, it is important to water thoroughly afterward to spread the fertilizer further, allowing the roots to better absorb the nutrients. The best time to fertilize your common yew is in the spring after the last frost, when your common yew enters the growing season.
Planting Instructions
When planting your common yew, leave a little space between each plant. For wide-growing varieties, leave a distance of at least 2 m. For more narrow-growing species, a gap of around 40 cm will be sufficient. Soak the root ball in water for 24 hours and dig a hole that is twice as deep and three times as wide as the root ball. To reduce the risk of your common yew becoming waterlogged, you could add in a 3 to 5 cm layer of gravel before putting your common yew in the hole. Fill the hole and thread it down thoroughly before watering generously. Keep the soil wet but not waterlogged in the following few weeks.
The ideal time for planting the common yew is either spring or fall. If planting in the spring, be sure that there is no chance of frost – this can harm the plant in the early stages before it is well-established. If planting in the fall, then plant as early as possible – this will give the common yew time to develop strong roots before the oncoming winter.
Pruning
The common yew is very hardy when it comes to pruning, and, because of this, it is commonly used in creating topiary. The best time to prune is toward the beginning of spring or at the end of summer. If you choose to prune your common yew at the beginning of spring, then this will encourage faster growth, making it a popular option for younger plants. Don’t prune the top of your common yew unless it has already reached your desired height, as it is unlikely to regain its height very quickly. Prune your common yew once or twice a year by snipping a little on all sides until you have the desired shape. Wear gloves when pruning as most parts of the common yew are poisonous.
Propagation
You can propagate your common yew through cuttings, although success rates can vary. For the best chance of success, take cuttings in late fall, which have plenty of healthy foliage and no fruit or flowers, around 1/4-inch in diameter and about 23 cm long. Pull off any needles on the bottom half of the stem and then use a knife to scratch off a small amount of bark from the base. Dust the defoliated part of your cutting with a rooting hormone powder.
Insert your cutting into a plastic pot filled with a well-draining soil made up of coarse sand and coir. Keep the cuttings at around 24 ℃ during the day and preferably in indirect light indoors. Keep the soil moist but not soggy – regularly misting the leaves with water can help to encourage growth. Your common yew cuttings should root in about two or three months.
III. Uses and Benefits
- Ornamental uses
Today European yew is widely used in landscaping and ornamental horticulture. Due to its dense, dark green, mature foliage, and its tolerance of even very severe pruning, it is used especially for formal hedges and topiary. Its relatively slow growth rate means that in such situations it needs to be clipped only once per year (in late summer).
- Medicinal uses
Certain compounds found in the bark of yew trees were discovered in 1967 to have efficacy as anti-cancer agents. The precursors of the chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (taxol) were later shown to be synthesized easily from extracts of the leaves of European yew, which is a much more renewable source than the bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) from which they were initially isolated. This ended a point of conflict in the early 1990s; many environmentalists, including Al Gore, had opposed the destructive harvesting of Pacific yew for paclitaxel cancer treatments. Docetaxel can then be obtained by semi-synthetic conversion from the precursors.
- Woodworking
Wood from the yew is classified as a closed-pore softwood, similar to cedar and pine. Easy to work, yew is among the hardest of the softwoods, yet it possesses a remarkable elasticity, making it ideal for products that require springiness, such as bows. The wood is esteemed for cabinetry and tool handles. The hard, slow-growing wood also finds use in gates, furniture, parquet floors, and paneling.
Its typical burls and contorted growth, with intricate multicolored patterns, make it attractive for carving and woodturning, but also make the wood unsuited for construction. It is good firewood and is sometimes burnt as incense. Due to all parts of the yew and its volatile oils being poisonous and cardiotoxic, a mask should be worn if one comes in contact with sawdust from the wood.
One of the world’s oldest surviving wooden artifacts is a Clactonian yew spear head, found in 1911 at Clacton-on-Sea, in Essex, UK. Known as the Clacton Spear, it is estimated to be over 400,000 years old.
Musical instruments
The late Robert Lundberg, a noted luthier who performed extensive research on historical lute-making methodology, states in his 2002 book Historical Lute Construction that yew was historically a prized wood for lute construction. European legislation establishing use limits and requirements for yew limited supplies available to luthiers, but it was apparently as prized among medieval, renaissance, and baroque lute builders as Brazilian rosewood is among contemporary guitar-makers for its quality of sound and beauty.
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